Executive Summary

On 15 April 2023, conflict erupted in Sudan between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and Rapid Support Forces (RSF). Since then, intense clashes have continued between the warring forces across several states in the country. This resulted in the forced displacement of 8.4 million people, including 6.5 million internally and 1.9 million in neighbouring countries.

Due to its geographical location at the heart of a key route from East Africa to North Africa and Europe, Sudan has long been recognised as an origin, transit, and destination country for victims of modern slavery and human trafficking (MSHT).

However, the specific nature of the conflict and the mass displacement it has caused have led to the recording of increased rates of violence, including the use of sexual violence as a weapon of war and mass killings based on ethnic division. Combined, these circumstances lead to heightened vulnerability to various forms of MSHT, especially among internally displaced people (IDPs) or refugees, both in Sudan and its neighbouring countries.

This report seeks to map these MSHT trends in real time as the conflict continues to progress. While service delivery deteriorated as a result of the conflict, key challenges already existed in addressing MSHT. Those reflect significant funding and capacity gaps, as well as a lack of incentives at various levels of government and the complicity of some security actors in smuggling and trafficking itself.

Since the start of the conflict, the set of risk factors for potential victims have increased. The conflict itself has magnified risks of forced marriage and forced conscription, which mirrors similar patterns from previous conflict in Sudan (such as in Darfur in 2003). The high numbers of displaced people have also created turbulent conditions in which vulnerable groups lack access to safe shelter and are more likely to be exploited by traffickers.

Within these broad factors, specific groups present particular vulnerabilities. For example, Sudan has historically absorbed high numbers of refugees from neighbouring countries (such as South Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea) who are especially vulnerable to exploitation through MSHT because of historic discrimination, uncertain legal status, and pre-existing marginalisation. Women and girls have been particularly at risk of experiencing sexual exploitation through forced marriages, child marriages, and kidnapping. Men and boys have been more vulnerable to forced conscription and forced labour by armed forces, as well as forms of sexual violence. They have faced visa restrictions in travelling to neighbouring countries, during which they experienced heightened vulnerability from lack of protection and shelter.

The conflict has resulted in the complete breakdown of state institutions, including those responsible for upholding law and order. In some (more stable) states, local government has sought to cover aspects of federal government roles. Overall, however, capacity to respond to victims of MSHT or to take action against perpetrators is significantly reduced. There are no dedicated service providers that can provide the range of services needed to support victims. The quality of services still offered has been significantly impacted by the conflict. Moreover, notable stigma and social barriers remain for victims to come forward and ask for support, in particular for those who have experienced sexual violence or exploitation.

The main providers of services to MSHT victims have been international non-governmental organisations (INGOs) and Sudan-based non-governmental organisations (NGOs). In response to ongoing fighting, most INGOs have now shifted to working remotely, which significantly impacted their reach and ability to support victims. A number of NGOs providing broader services (e.g. to IDPs, or in specific areas like health) have had to rethink their programmes to account for the large numbers of MSHT victims and the complex needs they present. In the face of significant gaps in the ability of INGOs and NGOs to effectively respond, a range of more informal local initiatives have developed, including youth-led initiatives and volunteer-led groups like the Emergency Response Rooms (ERRs). They formed quickly as community-led responses that work in ad hoc and informal ways to help meet the basic needs of local populations. While it is not new for community-led efforts to step in and fill vacuums left by the state, they are under increasing pressure given the growing scale of needs.

Moreover, the conflict has fuelled inter- and cross-border displacement, which means that patterns of MSHT have also increased at a regional level. Our research focused on trends in Egypt, as a neighbouring country which has absorbed significant levels of Sudanese arrivals. Egypt has a long history of hosting refugees and a strong legal framework, including in relation to victims of MSHT. However, major gaps exist in its implementation. With growing pressures on its own economy, an increasingly hostile approach to the growing numbers of Sudanese refugees can be observed within Egypt. The lack of provision for these refugees and a lack of clarity over their legal status is fuelling further MSHT vulnerabilities. For example, large numbers of unaccompanied children from Sudan in Egypt have little to no access to education, which contributes to an increase in forced child labour and begging. With limited livelihood opportunities, women and girls have been particularly vulnerable to sexual exploitation.

Support to victims faces similar challenges in Egypt. These include institutional barriers, poor availability, and access-related gaps to services for MSHT survivors. While organisations maintained that the current Egyptian law to combat MSHT is comprehensive and compatible with international standards, they noted several issues with governmental capacity to implement it, and its lack of inclusivity to all vulnerable segments of society in Egypt. Given these findings, we identify a number of recommendations for strengthening the ability of service providers to more effectively respond, and for governments and international actors to better support these efforts. These recommendations include:

Recommendations for NGOs/ INGOs

• There is a significant need for more capacity development for the range of providers who are currently ‘first responders’ to MSHT victims, to build greater specialist knowledge and support for victims.

• These organisations also need to be supported to increase their community awareness efforts, to shift social norms, and to raise awareness about the various forms of MSHT and about the available services for potential victims in each area.

• While there is no scope for a national referral mechanism in Sudan, there is significant scope to strengthen the informal and more ad hoc referral pathways that already exist, to support greater information sharing and coordination between those providers who are still operational.

• As part of this, there is a need to strengthen data collection – which is largely non-existent at present – to understand root causes, trends, and impacts of MSHT amongst vulnerable communities, and inform more evidence-based programming and advocacy.

Recommendations for donors

• Prioritise funding for more specialised anti-trafficking programs to ensure more comprehensive and holistic support. This should include more support for those informal community initiatives who are currently on the frontline of response efforts.

• Be more adaptable and flexible with compliance and contracting models due to the current conflict, and in recognition of the ad hoc and informal providers who are now at the frontline of MSHT response.

• Increase support to coordination efforts, including informal referral processes, which should reduce duplication of efforts and promote more comprehensive support.

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